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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQS);faqs.511
AAS - American Astronautical Society
AIAA - American Institute of Astronautics & Aeronautics
World Space Foundation
Other groups not mentioned above
NEXT: FAQ #14/15 - How to become an astronaut
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From: leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech)
Newsgroups: sci.astro,sci.space,news.answers
Subject: Space FAQ 01/15 - Introduction
Keywords: Frequently Asked Questions
Message-ID: <intro_723318103@cs.unc.edu>
Date: 2 Dec 92 17:41:48 GMT
Expires: 6 Jan 93 17:41:43 GMT
References: <diffs_723318039@cs.unc.edu>
Sender: news@cs.unc.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
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Last-modified: $Date: 92/12/02 12:34:40 $
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ON SCI.SPACE/SCI.ASTRO
INTRODUCTION
This series of linked messages is periodically posted to the Usenet
groups sci.space and sci.astro in an attempt to provide good answers to
frequently asked questions and other reference material which is worth
preserving. If you have corrections or answers to other frequently asked
questions that you would like included in this posting, send email to
leech@cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech).
If you don't want to see the FAQ, add 'Frequently Asked Questions' to
your KILL file for this group (if you're not reading this with a newsreader
that can kill articles by subject, you're out of luck).
The FAQ volume is excessive right now and will hopefully be trimmed down
by rewriting and condensing over time. The FAQ postings are available in
the Ames SPACE archive in FAQ/faq<#>.
Good summaries will be accepted in place of the answers given here. The
point of this is to circulate existing information, and avoid rehashing old
answers. Better to build on top than start again. Nothing more depressing
than rehashing old topics for the 100th time. References are provided
because they give more complete information than any short generalization.
Questions fall into three basic types:
1) Where do I find some information about space?
Try your local public library first. The net is not a good place to ask
for general information. Ask INDIVIDUALS (by email) if you must. There
are other sources, use them, too. The net is a place for open ended
discussion.
2) I have an idea which would improve space flight?
Hope you aren't surprised, but 9,999 out of 10,000 have usually been
thought of before. Again, contact a direct individual source for
evaluation. NASA fields thousands of these each day.
3) Miscellanous queries.
These are addressed on a case-by-case basis in the following series of
FAQ postings.
SUGGESTIONS FOR BETTER NETIQUETTE
Read news.announce.newusers if you're on Usenet.
Minimize cross references, [Do you REALLY NEED to?]
Edit "Subject:" lines, especially if you're taking a tangent.
Send mail instead, avoid posting follow ups. (1 mail message worth
100 posts).
Internet mail readers: send requests to add/drop to SPACE-REQUEST
not SPACE.
Read all available articles before posting a follow-up. (Check all
references.)
Cut down attributed articles (leave only the points you're
responding to; remove signatures and headers). Summarize!
Put a return address in the body (signature) of your message (mail
or article), state your institution, etc. Don't assume the
'reply' function of mailers will work.
Use absolute dates. Post in a timely way. Don't post what everyone
will get on TV anyway.
Some editors and window systems do character count line wrapping:
keep lines under 80 characters for those using ASCII terminals
(use carriage returns).
INDEX TO LINKED POSTINGS
I've attempted to break the postings up into related areas. There isn't
a keyword index yet; the following lists the major subject areas in each
posting. Only those containing astronomy-related material are posted to
sci.astro (indicated by '*' following the posting number).
# Contents
1* Introduction
Suggestions for better netiquette
Index to linked postings
Notes on addresses, phone numbers, etc.
Contributors
2* Network resources
Overview
Mailing lists
Periodically updated information
Warning about non-public networks
3* Online (and some offline) sources of images, data, etc.
Introduction
Viewing Images
Online Archives
NASA Ames
NASA Spacelink
National Space Science Data Center
Space And Planetary Image Facility
Space Telescope Science Institute Electronic Info. Service
Astronomical Databases
Astronomy Programs
Orbital Element Sets
SPACE Digest
Landsat & NASA Photos
Planetary Maps
Cometary Orbits
4* Performing calculations and interpreting data formats
Computing spacecraft orbits and trajectories
Computing planetary positions
Computing crater diameters from Earth-impacting asteroids
Map projections and spherical trignometry
Performing N-body simulations efficiently
Interpreting the FITS image format
Sky (Unix ephemeris program)
Three-dimensional star/galaxy coordinates
5* References on specific areas
Publishers of space/astronomy material
Careers in the space industry
DC-X single-stage to orbit (SSTO) program
LLNL "great exploration"
Lunar science and activities
Spacecraft models
Rocket propulsion
Spacecraft design
Esoteric propulsion schemes (solar sails, lasers, fusion...)
Spy satellites
Space shuttle computer systems
SETI computation (signal processing)
Amateur satellies & weather satellites
Tides
6* Constants and equations for calculations
7* Astronomical Mnemonics
8 Contacting NASA, ESA, and other space agencies/companies
NASA Centers / Arianespace / ESA / NASDA / Soyuzkarta / Space
Camp / Space Commerce Corporation / Spacehab / SPOT Image
Other commercial space businesses
9 Space shuttle answers, launch schedules, TV coverage
Shuttle launchings and landings; schedules and how to see them
How to receive the NASA TV channel, NASA SELECT
Dial-A-Shuttle and how to use it
Amateur radio frequencies for shuttle missions
Solid Rocket Booster fuel composition
10 Planetary probes - Historical Missions
US planetary missions
Mariner (Venus, Mars, & Mercury flybys and orbiters)
Pioneer (Moon, Sun, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn flybys and orbiters)
Ranger (Lunar lander and impact missions)
Lunar Orbiter (Lunar surface photography)
Surveyor (Lunar soft landers)
Viking (Mars orbiters and landers)
Voyager (Outer planet flybys)
Soviet planetary missions
Soviet Lunar probes
Soviet Venus probes
Soviet Mars probes
Japanese planetary missions
Planetary mission references
11 Upcoming planetary probes - missions and schedules
Cassini
Galileo
Magellan
Mars Observer
TOPEX/Poseidon
Ulysses
Other space science missions
Proposed missions
12 Controversial questions
What happened to the Saturn V plans
Why data from space missions isn't immediately available
Risks of nuclear (RTG) power sources for space probes
Impact of the space shuttle on the ozone layer
How long can a human live unprotected in space
Using the shuttle beyond Low Earth Orbit
The "Face on Mars"
13 Space activist/interest/research groups and space publications
Groups
Publications
Undocumented Groups
14 How to become an astronaut
15 Orbital and Planetary Launch Services
NOTES ON ADDRESSES, PHONE NUMBERS, ETC.
Unless otherwise specified, telephone numbers, addresses, and so on are
for the United States of America. Non-US readers should remember to add
the country code for telephone calls, etc.
CREDITS
Eugene Miya started a series of linked FAQ postings some years ago which
inspired (and was largely absorbed into) this set.
Peter Yee and Ron Baalke have and continue to spend a lot of their own
time setting up the SPACE archives at NASA Ames and forwarding official
NASA announcements.
Many other people have contributed material to this list in the form of
old postings to sci.space and sci.astro which I've edited. Please let me
know if corrections need to be made. Contributors I've managed to keep
track of are:
0004847546@mcimail.com (Francis Reddy) - map projections
akerman@bill.phy.queensu.CA (Richard Akerman) - crater diameters
alweigel@athena.mit.edu (Lisa Weigel) - SEDS info
aoab314@emx.utexas.edu (Srinivas Bettadpur) - tides
awpaeth@watcgl.waterloo.edu (Alan Wm Paeth) - map projections
aws@iti.org (Allen W. Sherzer) - Great Exploration
baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov (Ron Baalke) - planetary probe schedules
bankst@rata.vuw.ac.nz (Timothy Banks) - map projections,
variable star analysis archive
bern@uni-trier.de (Jochen Bern) - German mnemonic translation
brosen@pioneer.arc.nasa.gov (Bernie Rosen) - Space Camp
bschlesinger@nssdca.gsfc.nasa.gov (Barry Schlesinger) - FITS format
cew@venera.isi.edu (Craig E. Ward) - space group contact info
chapin@cbnewsc.att.com (Tom Chapin) - planetary positions
cunnida@tenet.edu (D. Alan Cunningham) - NASA Spacelink
cyamamot@kilroy.Jpl.Nasa.Gov (Cliff Yamamoto) - orbital elements
datri@convex.com (Anthony Datri) - PDS/VICAR viewing software
daver@sjc.mentorg.com (Dave Rickel) - orbit formulae
dlbres10@pc.usl.edu (Phil Fraering) - propulsion
eder@hsvaic.boeing.com (Dani Eder) - Saturn V plans, SRBs
eugene@eos.arc.nasa.gov (Eugene N. Miya) - introduction,
NASA contact info, started FAQ postings
g@telesoft.com (Gary Morris) - amateur radio info
gaetz@uwovax.uwo.ca (Terry Gaetz) - N-body calculations,
orbital dynamics
grandi@noao.edu (Steve Grandi) - planetary positions
greer%utd201.dnet%utadnx@utspan.span.nasa.gov (Dale M. Greer) - constants
henry@zoo.toronto.edu (Henry Spencer) - survival in vacuum,
astronaut how-to, publication refs, DC-X
higgins@fnal.bitnet (William Higgins) - RTGs, publishers,
shuttle landings, spysats, propulsion, "Face on Mars"
hmueller@cssun.tamu.edu (Hal Mueller) - map projections,
orbital dynamics
jbh55289@uxa.cso.uiuc.edu (Josh Hopkins) - launch services
jim@pnet01.cts.com (Jim Bowery) - propulsion, launch services
jscotti@lpl.arizona.edu (Jim Scotti) - planetary positions
kcarroll@zoo.toronto.edu (Kieran A. Carroll)- refs for spacecraft design
ken@orion.bitnet (Kenneth Ng) - RTGs
klaes@verga.enet.dec.com (Larry Klaes) - planetary probe history
leech@cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech) - crater diameters
lfa@vielle.cray.com (Lou Adornato) - orbital dynamics
maury.markowitz@egsgate.fidonet.org (Maury Markowitz) - propulsion
mbellon@mcdurb.Urbana.Gould.COM - N-body calculations
mcconley@phoenix.Princeton.edu (Marc Wayne Mcconley) - space careers
msb@sq.com (Mark Brader) - Mariner 1 info.
mwm@cmu.edu (Mark Maimone) - SPACE Digest
nickw@syma.sussex.ac.uk (Dr. Nick Watkins) - models, spysats
opus@pioneer.unm.edu (Colby Kraybill) - SPIF data archive
panama@cup.portal.com (Kenneth W Durham) - cometary orbits, IAU
paul.blase@nss.fidonet.org (Paul Blase) - propulsion
pjs@plato.jpl.nasa.gov (Peter Scott) - RTGs
pschleck@unomaha.edu (Paul W. Schleck) - AMSAT, ARRL contact info
rdb@mel.cocam.oz.au (Rodney Brown) - propulsion refs
rja7m@phil.cs.virginia.edu (Ran Atkinson) - FTPable astro. programs
rjungcla@ihlpb.att.com (R. Michael Jungclas)- models
roelle@sigi.jhuapl.edu (Curt Roelle) - German mnemonic translation
seal@leonardo.jpl.nasa.gov (David Seal) - Cassini mission schedule
shafer@skipper.dfrf.nasa.gov (Mary Shafer) - photos, shuttle landings
smith@sndpit.enet.dec.com (Willie Smith) - photos
stephen@gpwd.gp.co.nz (Stephen Dixon) - shuttle audio frequencies
sterner@warper.jhuapl.edu (Ray Sterner) - planetary positions
stooke@vaxr.sscl.uwo.ca (Phil Stooke) - planetary maps
ted_anderson@transarc.com (Ted Anderson) - propulsion
terry@astro.as.utexas.edu (Terry Hancock) - NASA center info
thorson@typhoon.atmos.coloState.edu (Bill Thorson) - FITS info
tm2b+@andrew.cmu.edu (Todd L. Masco) - SPACE Digest
tom@ssd.csd.harris.com (Tom Horsley) - refs for algorithms
veikko.makela@helsinki.fi (Veikko Makela) - orbital element sets
wayne@csri.utoronto.ca (Wayne Hayes) - constants
weemba@libra.wistar.upenn.edu (Matthew P Wiener) - Voyager history
yamada@yscvax.ysc.go.jp (Yoshiro Yamada) - ISAS/NASDA missions
yee@ames.arc.nasa.gov (Peter Yee) - AMES archive server,
propulsion
In Net memoriam:
Ted Flinn
NEXT: FAQ #2/15 - Network Resources
Xref: bloom-picayune.mit.edu sci.space:51997 news.answers:4383
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From: leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech)
Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
Subject: Space FAQ 15/15 - Orbital and Planetary Launch Services
Keywords: Frequently Asked Questions
Message-ID: <launchers_723318298@cs.unc.edu>
Date: 2 Dec 92 17:45:02 GMT
Expires: 6 Jan 93 17:44:58 GMT
References: <diffs_723318039@cs.unc.edu>
Sender: news@cs.unc.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Lines: 195
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
Supersedes: <launchers_720641966@cs.unc.edu>
Archive-name: space/launchers
Last-modified: $Date: 92/12/02 12:34:41 $
ORBITAL AND PLANETARY LAUNCH SERVICES
The following data comes from _International Reference Guide to Space Launch
Systems_ by Steven J. Isakowitz, 1991 edition.
Notes:
* Unless otherwise specified, LEO and polar paylaods are for a 100 nm
orbit.
* Reliablity data includes launches through Dec, 1990. Reliabity for a
familiy of vehicles includes launches by types no longer built when
applicable
* Prices are in millions of 1990 $US and are subject to change.
* Only operational vehicle families are included. Individual vehicles
which have not yet flown are marked by an asterisk (*) If a vehicle
had first launch after publication of my data, it may still be
marked with an asterisk.
Vehicle | Payload kg (lbs) | Reliability | Price | Launch Site
(nation) | LEO Polar GTO | | | (Lat. & Long.)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ariane 35/40 87.5% Kourou
(ESA) (5.2 N, 52.8 W)
AR40 4,900 3,900 1,900 1/1 $65m
(10,800) (8,580) (4,190)
AR42P 6,100 4,800 2,600 1/1 $67m
(13,400) (10,600) (5,730)
AR44P 6,900 5,500 3,000 0/0 ? $70m
(15,200) (12,100) (6,610)
AR42L 7,400 5,900 3,200 0/0 ? $90m
(16,300) (13,000) (7,050)
AR44LP 8,300 6,600 3,700 6/6 $95m
(18,300) (14,500) (8,160)
AR44L 9,600 7,700 4,200 3/4 $115m
(21,100) (16,900) (9,260)
* AR5 18,000 ??? 6,800 0/0 $105m
(39,600) (15,000)
[300nm]
Atlas 213/245 86.9% Cape Canaveral
(USA) (28.5 N, 81.0W)
Atlas E -- 820 -- 15/17 $45m Vandeberg AFB
(1,800) (34.7 N, 120.6W)
Atlas I 5,580 4,670 2,250 1/1 $70m
(12,300) (10,300) (4,950)
Atlas II 6,395 5,400 2,680 0/0 $75m
(14,100) (11,900) (5,900)
Atlas IIA 6,760 5,715 2,810 0/0 $85m
(14,900) (12,600) (6,200)
* Atlas IIAS 8,390 6,805 3,490 0/0 $115m
(18,500) (15,000) (7,700)
Delta 189/201 94.0% Cape Canaveral
(USA) Vandenberg AFB
Delta 6925 3,900 2,950 1,450 14/14 $45m
(8,780) (6,490) (3,190)
Delta 7925 5,045 3,830 1,820 1/1 $50m
(11,100) (8,420) (2,000)
Energia 2/2 100% Baikonur
(Russia) (45.6 N 63.4 E)
Energia 88,000 80,000 ??? 2/2 $110m
(194,000) (176,000)
H series 22/22 100% Tangeshima
(Japan) (30.2 N 130.6 E)
* H-2 10,500 6,600 4,000 0/0 $110m
(23,000) (14,500) (8,800)
Kosmos 371/377 98.4% Plestek
(Russia) (62.8 N 40.1 E)
Kosmos 1100 - 1350 (2300 - 3000) $??? Kapustin Yar
[400 km orbit ??? inclination] (48.4 N 45.8 E)
Long March 23/25 92.0% Jiquan SLC
(China) (41 N 100 E)
* CZ-1D 720 ??? 200 0/0 $10m Xichang SLC
(1,590) (440) (28 N 102 E)
Taiyuan SLC
CZ-2C 3,200 1,750 1,000 12/12 $20m (41 N 100 E)
(7,040) (3,860) (2,200)
CZ-2E 9,200 ??? 3,370 1/1 $40m
(20,300) (7,430)
* CZ-2E/HO 13,600 ??? 4,500 0/0 $???
(29,900) (9,900)
CZ-3 ??? ??? 1,400 6/7 $33m
(3,100)
* CZ-3A ??? ??? 2,500 0/0 $???m
(5,500)
CZ-4 4,000 ??? 1,100 2/2 $???m
(8,800) (2,430)
Pegasus/Taurus 2/2 100% Peg: B-52/L1011
(USA) Taur: Canaveral
Pegasus 455 365 125 2/2 $10m or Vandenberg
(1,000) (800) (275)
* Taurus 1,450 1,180 375 0/0 $15m
(3,200) (2,600) (830)
Proton 164/187 87.7% Baikonour
(Russia)
Proton 20,000 ??? 5,500 164/187 $35-70m
(44,100) (12,200)
SCOUT 99/113 87.6% Vandenberg AFB
(USA) Wallops FF
SCOUT G-1 270 210 54 13/13 $12m (37.9 N 75.4 W)
(600) (460) (120) San Marco
(2.9 S 40.3 E)
* Enhanced SCOUT 525 372 110 0/0 $15m
(1,160) (820) (240)
Shavit 2/2 100% Palmachim AFB
(Israel) ( ~31 N)
Shavit ??? 160 ??? 2/2 $22m
(350)
Space Shuttle 37/38 97.4% Kennedy Space
(USA) Center
Shuttle/SRB 23,500 ??? 5,900 37/38 $248m (28.5 N 81.0 W)
(51,800) (13,000) [FY88]
* Shuttle/ASRM 27,100 ??? ??? 0/0
(59,800)
SLV 2/6 33.3% SHAR Center
(India) (400km) (900km polar) (13.9 N 80.4 E)
ASLV 150 ??? ??? 0/2 $???m
(330)
* PSLV 3,000 1,000 450 0/0 $???m
(6,600) (2,200) (990)
* GSLV 8,000 ??? 2,500 0/0 $???m
(17,600) (5,500)
Titan 160/172 93.0% Cape Canaveral
(USA) Vandenberg
Titan II ??? 1,905 ??? 2/2 $43m
(4,200)
Titan III 14,515 ??? 5,000 2/3 $140m
(32,000) (11,000)
Titan IV/SRM 17,700 14,100 6,350 3/3 $154m-$227m
(39,000) (31,100) (14,000)
Titan IV/SRMU 21,640 18,600 8,620 0/0 $???m
(47,700) (41,000) (19,000)
Vostok 1358/1401 96.9% Baikonur
(Russia) [650km] Plesetsk
Vostok 4,730 1,840 ??? ?/149 $14m
(10,400) (4,060)
Soyuz 7,000 ??? ??? ?/944 $15m
(15,400)
Molniya 1500kg (3300 lbs) in ?/258 $???M
Highly eliptical orbit
Zenit 12/13 92.3% Baikonur
(Russia)
Zenit 13,740 11,380 4,300 12/13 $65m
(30,300) (25,090) (9,480)
Xref: bloom-picayune.mit.edu sci.astro:28932 sci.space:51986 news.answers:4373
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From: leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu (Jon Leech)
Newsgroups: sci.astro,sci.space,news.answers
Subject: Space FAQ 04/15 - Calculations
Keywords: Frequently Asked Questions
Message-ID: <math_723318189@cs.unc.edu>
Date: 2 Dec 92 17:43:15 GMT
Expires: 6 Jan 93 17:43:09 GMT
References: <diffs_723318039@cs.unc.edu>
Sender: news@cs.unc.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Lines: 353
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
Supersedes: <math_720641672@cs.unc.edu>
Archive-name: space/math
Last-modified: $Date: 92/12/02 12:34:43 $
PERFORMING CALCULATIONS AND INTERPRETING DATA FORMATS
COMPUTING SPACECRAFT ORBITS AND TRAJECTORIES
References that have been frequently recommended on the net are:
"Fundamentals of Astrodynamics" Roger Bate, Donald Mueller, Jerry White
1971, Dover Press, 455pp $8.95 (US) (paperback). ISBN 0-486-60061-0
NASA Spaceflight handbooks (dating from the 1960s)
SP-33 Orbital Flight Handbook (3 parts)
SP-34 Lunar Flight Handbook (3 parts)
SP-35 Planetary Flight Handbook (9 parts)
These might be found in university aeronautics libraries or ordered
through the US Govt. Printing Office (GPO), although more
information would probably be needed to order them.
M. A. Minovitch, _The Determination and Characteristics of Ballistic
Interplanetary Trajectories Under the Influence of Multiple Planetary
Attractions_, Technical Report 32-464, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., Oct, 1963.
The title says all. Starts of with the basics and works its way up.
Very good. It has a companion article:
M. Minovitch, _Utilizing Large Planetary Perubations for the Design of
Deep-Space Solar-Probe and Out of Ecliptic Trajectories_, Technical
Report 32-849, JPL, Pasadena, Calif., 1965.
You need to read the first one first to realy understand this one.
It does include a _short_ summary if you can only find the second.
Contact JPL for availability of these reports.
"Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics", Peter C. Hughes 1986, John Wiley and
Sons.
"Celestial Mechanics: a computational guide for the practitioner",
Lawrence G. Taff, (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1985).
Starts with the basics (2-body problem, coordinates) and works up to
orbit determinations, perturbations, and differential corrections.
Taff also briefly discusses stellar dynamics including a short
discussion of n-body problems.
COMPUTING PLANETARY POSITIONS
More net references:
Van Flandern & Pullinen, _Low-Precision Formulae for Planetary
Positions_, Astrophysical J. Supp Series, 41:391-411, 1979. Look in an
astronomy or physics library for this; also said to be available from
Willmann-Bell.
Gives series to compute positions accurate to 1 arc minute for a
period + or - 300 years from now. Pluto is included but stated to
have an accuracy of only about 15 arc minutes.
_Interactive Computer Ephemeris_ (from the US Naval Observatory)
distributed on IBM-PC floppy disks, $35 (Willmann-Bell). Covers dates
1800-2049.
"Planetary Programs and Tables from -4000 to +2800", Bretagnon & Simon
1986, Willmann-Bell.
Floppy disks available separately.
"Fundamentals of Celestial Mechanics" (2nd ed), J.M.A. Danby 1988,
Willmann-Bell.
A good fundamental text. Includes BASIC programs; a companion set of
floppy disks is available separately.
"Astronomical Formulae for Calculators" (4th ed.), J. Meeus 1988,
Willmann-Bell.
"Astronomical Algorithms", J. Meeus 1991, Willmann-Bell.
If you actively use one of the editions of "Astronomical Formulae
for Calculators", you will want to replace it with "Astronomical
Algorithms". This new book is more oriented towards computers than
calculators and contains formulae for planetary motion based on
modern work by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the U.S. Naval
Observatory, and the Bureau des Longitudes. The previous books were
all based on formulae mostly developed in the last century.
Algorithms available separately on diskette.
"Practical Astronomy with your Calculator" (3rd ed.), P. Duffett-Smith
1988, Cambridge University Press.
"Orbits for Amateurs with a Microcomputer", D. Tattersfield 1984,
Stanley Thornes, Ltd.
Includes example programs in BASIC.
"Orbits for Amateurs II", D. Tattersfield 1987, John Wiley & Sons.
"Astronomy / Scientific Software" - catalog of shareware, public domain,
and commercial software for IBM and other PCs. Astronomy software
includes planetarium simulations, ephemeris generators, astronomical
databases, solar system simulations, satellite tracking programs,
celestial mechanics simulators, and more.
Andromeda Software, Inc.
P.O. Box 605
Amherst, NY 14226-0605
COMPUTING CRATER DIAMETERS FROM EARTH-IMPACTING ASTEROIDS
Astrogeologist Gene Shoemaker proposes the following formula, based on
studies of cratering caused by nuclear tests.
(1/3.4)
D = S S c K W : crater diameter in km
g p f n
(1/6)
S = (g /g ) : gravity correction factor for bodies other than
g e t Earth, where g = 9.8 m/s^2 and g is the surface
e t
gravity of the target body. This scaling is
cited for lunar craters and may hold true for
other bodies.
(1/3.4)
S = (p / p ) : correction factor for target density p ,
p a t t
p = 1.8 g/cm^3 for alluvium at the Jangle U
a
crater site, p = 2.6 g/cm^3 for average
rock on the continental shields.
C : crater collapse factor, 1 for craters <= 3 km
in diameter, 1.3 for larger craters (on Earth).
(1/3.4)
K : .074 km / (kT TNT equivalent)
n empirically determined from the Jangle U
nuclear test crater.
3 2 19
W = pi * d * delta * V / (12 * 4.185 * 10 )
: projectile kinetic energy in kT TNT equivalent
given diameter d, velocity v, and projectile
density delta in CGS units. delta of around 3
g/cm^3 is fairly good for an asteroid.
An RMS velocity of V = 20 km/sec may be used for Earth-crossing
asteroids.
Under these assumptions, the body which created the Barringer Meteor
Crater in Arizona (1.13 km diameter) would have been about 40 meters in
diameter.
More generally, one can use (after Gehrels, 1985):
Asteroid Number of objects Impact probability Impact energy
diameter (km) (impacts/year) (* 5*10^20 ergs)
10 10 10^-8 10^9
1 1 000 10^-6 10^6
0.1 100 000 10^-4 10^3
assuming simple scaling laws. Note that 5*10^20 ergs = 13 000 tons TNT
equivalent, or the energy released by the Hiroshima A-bomb.
References:
Gehrels, T. 1985 Asteroids and comets. _Physics Today_ 38, 32-41. [an
excellent general overview of the subject for the layman]
Shoemaker, E.M. 1983 Asteroid and comet bombardment of the earth. _Ann.
Rev. Earth Planet. Sci._ 11, 461-494. [very long and fairly
technical but a comprehensive examination of the
subject]
Shoemaker, E.M., J.G. Williams, E.F. Helin & R.F. Wolfe 1979
Earth-crossing asteroids: Orbital classes, collision rates with
Earth, and origin. In _Asteroids_, T. Gehrels, ed., pp. 253-282,
University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Cunningham, C.J. 1988 _Introduction to Asteroids: The Next Frontier_
(Richmond: Willman-Bell, Inc.) [covers all aspects of asteroid
studies and is an excellent introduction to the subject for people
of all experience levels. It also has a very extensive reference
list covering essentially all of the reference material in the
field.]
MAP PROJECTIONS AND SPHERICAL TRIGNOMETRY
Two easy-to-find sources of map projections are the "Encyclopaedia
Brittanica", (particularly the older volumes) and a tutorial appearing
in _Graphics Gems_ (Academic Press, 1990). The latter was written with
simplicity of exposition and suitability of digital computation in mind
(spherical trig formulae also appear, as do digitally-plotted examples).
More than you ever cared to know about map projections is in John
Snyder's USGS publication "Map Projections--A Working Manual", USGS
Professional Paper 1395. This contains detailed descriptions of 32
projections, with history, features, projection formulas (for both
spherical earth and ellipsoidal earth), and numerical test cases. It's a
neat book, all 382 pages worth. This one's $20.